The Children Act 2004 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Children Act 2004 - Essay Example It would be convenient to talk about the background of Children Act 2004 before moving forward towards its analysis. The primary aim of this Act was to make provisions for instituting a Children’s Commissioner. The main idea behind this move was to appoint person with appropriate authority who could efficiently handle matters related to children’s social protection. After that the Act concentrated on making more efficient procedures for the protection that local authorities provide ‘to’ and ‘for’ children. It was also aimed at family proceedings, child minding, private fostering, adoption of review panels, day care, child safety order, reasonable punishment, publication of material containing inappropriate child content and disclosure by the Inland Review of Information to provide better care for children of Wales. In September 2003, the nation witnessed the tragic news of the death of Victoria Climbià ©. As this heart-breaking news got national attention, the government put out the Every Child Matters green paper besides a formal reply to Lord Laming, who was investigating the matter of the poor child’s tragic death. Lord Laming’s report was an eye opener for many authorities. The report pointed out so many gaps in child protection system that shouldn’t have been there. The more significant aspect of the report was the lack of ‘joined-up reporting’, which was the reason that even the professionals were unable to get an insight to the child’s life. The green paper recommended some crucial reformations that enjoyed full support of the legislation. Lord Laming’s report highlighted crucial failures in the health, social services and the police departments that on12 occasions, Victoria had a chance to live but that chance couldn’t be avail because there was privation of information sharing. That is why the

American Indian Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

American Indian - Essay Example We do not want to hear what that man has to say. Be seated.†(Pope) That sealed the fate of the Medicine Man, and he meekly obeyed the order without protest. The women of the house had powers to get rid of an abusive man and a man with negative traits. Social rules and regulations were so liberal and the author writes, â€Å"A woman shouldn’t be ostracized if she has a baby out of marriage.† (Pope)This shows how progressive the society was and as such I think this is a great article, that gives the true picture of women in the Indian Society and how forward looking it was. In the second article, â€Å"Writing and Art by North American Indian Women,† it is explained, with the advent of colonial powers, how the Indian Society suffered and their traditions and social structure were adversely affected. When Attakullakulla, Cherokee chief reached out to the whites to negotiate a treaty, his first question to the white delegation was, â€Å"Where are your women?†(Awiakta) Issues have changed much, and the advent of materialism has deteriorated the conditions of women in the society in real terms. The author laments and asks â€Å"I turn to my own time (1983). I look at the Congress, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . . . at the hierarchies of my church, my university, my city, my children’s school. †¦.Where are your women?†(Awiakta) Even the U. S. Constitution does not include equal rights for women. Both the articles throw light on the gender equality, how women enjoyed great powers in the Indian Society, before the advent of colonial powers and how the powers and status of women were on the wane gradually. A woman is an economic unit now, not the important social and spiritual entity that she was once upon a

SHCBK Protocol for Securing Ad Hoc Networks

SHCBK Protocol for Securing Ad Hoc Networks Abstract With present advances in technology, wireless networks are getting more popularity. These networks let the users the liberty to travel from one location to another without disruption of their computing services. The Ad-hoc networks, are the subset of wireless networks, let you the configuration of a wireless network without the require for access point. Technology under development for wireless ad hoc networks has quickly become a crucial part of our life since it provides â€Å"anytime, anywhere† networking services for mobile users. Wireless ad hoc networks can be dynamically set up without relying on any pre-existing infrastructure, such as Public Key Infrastructure, and central management for communications. However, such infrastructure-less characteristic of the networks also makes them vulnerable to security attacks. Numerous protocols have been planned in order to attain a high degree of safety based on a mixture of human-mediated communication and an normal Dolev-Yao c ommunication medium. One of which is the Symmetrised Hash Commitment Before Knowledge protocol or the SHCBK protocol ( A. W. Roscoe and Long Nguyen, 2006). The protocol design seeks to optimise the amount of security that the humans can attain for a known quantity of work. This dissertation presents an implementation of the SHCBK protocol for securing ad hoc networks over Wi-Fi. Chapter 1 Introduction A wireless ad hoc network is a de-centralized wireless network. The network is called ad hoc for the reason that each hop is ready to send onward data for other hop, and so the resolving that which of hops will send the data to the forward hops is dynamically established on the network connectivity. This is in dissimilarity to wired networks in which routers execute the duty of routing. It is also in difference to organize the wireless networks. In which a particular node recognized as an admission point manages communication among other nodes. All taking part parties in an ad hoc network have the same opinion to recognize and send onward messages, to and from each other. With this type of elasticity, wireless networks have the capability to form anyplace, at any occasion, as long as two or more wireless users are enthusiastic to have the communicate between them. Mobile nodes inside an ad-hoc network move from one location to another. However, finding ways to model these movements i s not obvious. In order to evaluate an ad hoc network performance it is necessary to develop and use mobility models that accurately represent movements of the mobile nodes. In this paper we present performance evaluation of various entity mobility models in terms of the traveling patterns of mobile node. MANET is a self-configuring network that is formed automatically via wireless links by a collection of mobile nodes without the help of a fixed infrastructure or centralized management. The mobile nodes forward packets for each other, allowing communication among nodes outside wireless transmission range hop by hop. Due to dynamic infrastructure-less nature and be deficient in the centralized monitoring points, the ad hoc networks are susceptible to attacks. The Attacks on the ad- hoc network routing protocols can disturb the network performance and dependability. Wireless networks use radio waves to broadcast the signals and survive in essentially two dissimilar flavors, communica tions and ad-hoc. In communications mode all traffic is transmitted among The HOPs via an admission point which controls the network and gives it with the safety system. The most usually used normal for wireless networks is the 802.11 principles or Wi-Fi which in fact is not a standard but a entire relatives of principles using the same protocol. The safety in wireless networks by Wi-Fi consists of WEP, WPA and now lately WPA2 which is essentially a ended version of WPA. WPA was shaped as an middle safety system while WPA2 was finalized and experienced since the preceding system contained several serious weaknesses. Benefits and applications of ad-hoc Networks Ad-hoc networking need not want any admission points as contrasting to wireless networks in Communications mode. This makes them functional in a set of diverse applications. It is mainly used in Military applications and in save operations where the accessible communication communications Has been damaged or is unavailable, for example later than earthquakes and other disasters. But ad-hoc is these days also being used in a lot of commercial applications. Like we see that mobile phones and PDAs using the Bluetooth protocol system, seeing as it is quick and fairly simple to setup and doesnt need any additional tools. Characteristics and standards of ad-hoc As the wireless standard 802.11 does hold up ad-hoc networks, it is extremely limited since it doesnt offer routing among the nodes, so a hop can only arrive at the straight noticeable nodes in its place protocols similar to the Ad-hoc, On-demand Distance Vector protocol or Dynamic Source Routing protocol can not be used. These routing protocols are so called immediate routing protocols, sense that it gives a route to a target only when wanted. In difference the other usually used routing protocols on the Internet are practical sense that they will set up routes separately of the traffic in the network. This implies that the reactive network is quiet pending a connection that is wanted and thus lessens the overcrowding in the network. DSR is an even additional optimized protocol which doesnt need for the sending forwarding computers to have current routing tables but have a list of network addresses in the form of the packet. The protocol because of eavesdrops the limited network traffic and listens for this routing data and information included in the packets and adds it to its personal routing table. One of the major goals when scheming mobile ad-hoc networks where the nodes go about and the topology rapidly alters is to defend the network connectivity among the hops over potentially multi hop channels. To obtain multi hop connection you must offer one-hop connectivity throughout the link-layer and expand that to multi- hop connectivity throughout routing and data that is forwarding protocols in the network-layer. Many corporations make substantial investments in their wire- less infrastructure. For example, Microsofts IEEE 802.11 based Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy or else, to republish, to position on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Wireless (Wi-Fi) network consists of approximately 5,000 access points (APs) supporting 25,000 users each day in 277 buildings, covering more than 17 million square feet [10]. In addition to the equipment costs, the costs of planning, deploying, and maintaining such networks is substantial. Thus, it is important to develop infrastructure that improves the ability of Information Technology (IT) departments to manage and secure their wireless networks. In recent years, researchers have uncovered security vulnerability- ties in Wi-Fi networks [20]. They showed that the Wired Equiv- agency Protocol (WEP), the popular 802.11 security mechanism that most corporations were using at the time, was fundamentally flawed. In a series of highly publicized papers, they showed that 802.11 networks could be compromised easily. The community reacted quickly by developing and deploying alternate security so- lotions including VPNs, IEEE 802.1x [30], several variations of EAP [14], Smart cards, and more recently WPA [29]. Yet, the wire- less LAN (WLAN) security problem was not completely resolved. Last year, Microsoft conducted a series of interviews with WLAN administrators of several large and small organizations [10]. The goal of these interviews was to understand the difficulties involved in deploying and managing corporate WLANs. The issue of WLAN security came up repeatedly during these interviews. All administrators felt that WLAN security was a problem. They were unhappy with the quality of the tools they had at their disposal. Many of them would periodically walk around their buildings using WLAN scanning software looking for security vulnerabilities. Some hired expensive outside consultants to conduct security vulnerability analyses of their WLAN deployme nt, only to conclude that what they really needed was an on-going monitoring and alerting system. Most administrators believed that better systems to manage WLAN security are needed. Even after protocols such as IEEE 802.1x and WPA are deployed, corporate networks can be compromised by off-the-shelf 802.11 hardware and software. For example, an unauthorized AP can be connected to the corporate Ethernet, allowing unauthorized clients to connect to the corporate network. The rogue AP may be con- nected by a malicious person or, as is more often the case, by an employee who innocently connects an AP in his office without realizing that he is compromising the corporate network. A rogue AP can circumvent the elaborate security measures that the IT department may have put in place to protect the companys intellectual property. To test our assertion that people inadvertently compromise the security of their networks, we conducted an experiment in two large organizations that had secured their WLANs using one of the methods mentioned previously. We walked around with a WLAN- enabled laptop in a small section of the two campuses looking for APs to which we could connect. Chapter 2 SECURITY ATTACKS Here I attempts to provide a comprehensive overview of attacks and secure routing. It first analyzes the reason that ad hoc network is vulnerable to attacks. Then it presents the well known attacks and the popular secure protocols. Is out of its radio range, the cooperation of other nodes in the Network is needed. This is known as multi-hop communication. Therefore, each node must do something as both a host and a router at the same time. In most wireless networking environments in productive use today the users devices communicate either via some networking infrastructure in the form of base stations and a backbonenetwork,ordirectlywiththeirintended communication partner, e.g. by means of 802.11 in ad hoc networks In distinction a mobile ad-hoc network is a self-configuring network that is formed automatically via wireless links by a collection of mobile nodes without the help of a fixed infrastructure or centralized management. Every hop in the mobile ad-hoc networks is ready with a wireless transmitter and receiver, which allow it to communicate with other nodes in its radio communication area. Hops are more often share the same physical media. They broadcast and obtain signals at the same frequency band, and chase the same hopping series or spreading code. If the purpose node is not inside the broadcasting range of the sending node, then the sending node takes help of the intermediate hops to communicate with the purpose node by relaying the messages hop by hop. Fig.2 describes the Mobile ad-hoc network. In order for a node to forward a packet to a node that TYPES OF THE SECURITY ATTACKS Securing wireless ad hoc networks is a highly demanding issue. Due to dynamic scattered infrastructure-less nature and be deficient in of centralized monitoring points, the ad hoc networks are susceptible to a variety of attacks. Ad hoc networks have to manage with the same kinds of vulnerabilities as their wired counterparts. As well as with new vulnerabilities specific to the ad hoc context. In addition, conventional vulnerabilities are also accentuated by the ad hoc paradigm. Initially, the wireless channel is available for the both genuine network users and cruel attackers. The ad hoc networks are vulnerable to attacks ranging from static eavesdropping to active prying. Secondly, the be short of an online CA or Trusted Third Party adds the complexity to organize security mechanisms. Thirdly, mobile devices be inclined to have limited power consumption and calculation capabilities which make it more vulnerable to Denial of Service attacks and incapable to execute computation-heavy algorithms like public key algorithms Fourthly, in MANETs, therearemore probabilities for trusted node being compromised and then life form used by adversary to launch attacks on networks. Lastly, node mobility and recurrent topology changes enforce frequent networking reconfiguration which creates more chances for attacks, for example, it is difficult to discriminate between stale routing information and faked routing information. Ad -hoc networks attacks can be differentiated as passive and active. Passive attack signifies that the assailant does not send any message, but just listens to the channel. Passive attacks do not disturb the process of a protocol, but only makes the attempts to find out valuable information. Active attacks may either being directed to disturb the normal operation of a exact node or target the performance of the ad hoc network as a whole. For passive attacks, the attacker listens to the channel and packets that are containing clandestine information might be eavesdropped, which violates privacy. In a wireless environment it is usually not possible to notice this attack, as it does not create any new traffic in the network. Active attacks, counting injecting packets to unacceptable destinations into the network, deleting packets, changing the contents of packets, and impersonating other hops infringe ease of use, veracity, verification, and non-repudiation. Different from the passive attacks, active attacks can be detected and ultimately avoided by the legal nodes that contribute in an ad hoc network . We broadly classify these attacks as passive and active. The classification is important for understanding the strengths and limitations of the DAIR security management system. Eavesdropping Eavesdropping is a passive attack. The attacker passively listens to the traffic on the wireless network and gleans useful information. The listener may use sophisticated code breaking techniques. Countermeasures include use of better encryption techniques as well as physical security measures such as use of radio-opaque wallpaper. Passive attacks are difficult, if not impossible, to detect and we do not address them in this paper. Intrusion Any attack that allows a user to gain unauthorized access to the network is called an Intrusion attack. Intrusion attacks are active attacks and several such attacks are possible. An attacker can compromise the corporate network by gaining physical access to its wired network and connecting a wireless AP to it. The AP creates a â€Å"hole† through which unauthorized clients can connect, bypassing the elaborate security measures that the IT department may have put in place. A similar attack can be carried out by using ad-hoc wireless networks instead of APs. A corporate network may also be compromised when an attacker finds and uses an unsecured AP connected to the network by an unsuspecting employee. The widespread availability of inexpensive, easy-to- deploy APs and wireless routers has exacerbated this problem. As mentioned earlier, we found several unsecured APs in large organizations. The DAIR security management system can detect both rogue APs and rogue ad-hoc networks. Another way a corporate network can be compromised is when an attacker obtains the credentials (e.g., WEP passwords, IEEE 802.1x certificates) needed to connect to the corporate ne twork. The DAIR security management system can not currently detect such attacks. Denial of Service (DoS) Denial of Service attacks are active attacks. A diversity of DoS attacks are possible. Some DoS attacks exploit flaws in the IEEE 802.11 protocol. For example, a disassociation attack is where the attacker sends a series of fake disassociation or deauthentication messages, causing legitimate clients to disconnect from the AP. In a NAV attack, the attacker generates packets with large duration values in the frame header, thereby forcing legiti- mate clients to wait for long periods of time before accessing the network . In a DIFS attack, the attacker exploits certain timing- related features in the IEEE 802.11 protocol to aggressively steal bandwidth from legitimate users. In all three cases, the attacker transmits packets in an abnormal way, either by generating non-compliant packets, or by transmitting compliant packets at an abnormally high rate. The DAIR security management system can detect such attacks. DoS attacks are also possible by creating large amount of RF noise in the ne ighborhood of the network. The DAIR security management system can detect such attacks by comparing current observations with historical data observed from multiple vantage points. DoS attacks can also be mounted by gaining access to the corporate wired network and attacking the APs from the wired side. The DAIR system does not handle DoS attacks on the wired network. Phishing Phishing is an active attack. An attacker sets up a wireless AP that masquerades as a legitimate corporate AP (same SSID, per- haps even same BSSIDs). If the client does not use mutual authentication, it is possible for the attacker to lure unsuspecting legiti- mate users to connect to its AP. The attacker can then use a variety of techniques to extract private information (for example, sniff for passwords). The DAIR system can detect phishing attacks. How- ever, we do not describe solutions to phishing attacks in this paper. ACTIVE ATTACKS SECURITY ATTACKS Certain active attacks can be easily performed alongside an ad -hoc network. Understanding possible shape of attacks is for all time the first step towards increasing good safety solutions. Based on this danger analysis and the recognized capabilities of the potential attackers, several well recognized attacks that can target the operation of a routing protocol in an ad hoc network are discussed. Impersonation. In this kind of attack, nodes may be clever to join the network untraceable or can able to send the false routing data/information, camouflaged as some other trusted node. Wormhole. The wormhole attack involves the collaboration stuck between two attackers. One attacker gets the routing traffic at one point of the network and changes their path to another point in the network that shares a confidential communication link between the attackers, then selectively injects tunnel traffic back into the network. The two colluding assailant can potentially deform the topology and set up routes under the control over the wormhole link. Rushing attacks: The ROUTE REQUESTs for this Discovery sanded forwarded by the attacker can be the 1st to approach each neighbor of the target, then any way exposed by this Route Discovery will comprise a hop through the attacker. That is, when a neighbor of the target gets the hurried REQUEST from the attacker, and it forwards that REQUEST, and will not send onward any further REQUESTs from this Route Discovery. When non-attacking REQUESTs arrive later at these nodes, they will discard those legitimate REQUESTs. Blackmail: The attack incurs outstanding to be short of of genuineness and it grants stipulation for any node to corrupt other nodes legal information. Hops more often keep the data/ information of apparent malevolent nodes in a blacklist. This attack is pertinent alongside routing protocols that use mechanisms for the recognition of malicious nodes and spread messages that try to blacklist the criminal. An attacker may make such coverage messages and tell other nodes in the network to put in that hop to their blacklists and cut off legitimate nodes from the network. Chapter 3 Secure Routing The previously presented ad hoc routing protocols with no security contemplation assume that all participating nodes do not maliciously troublemaking the operation of the protocol. However, the continuation of malicious entities cannot be unnoticed in any system, particularly in open ones like ad hoc networks. Safe routing protocols manage with malicious nodes that can disturb the right performance of a routing protocol by changing routing information. By fabricating the wrong routing data or information and by impersonating other nodes. These safe routing protocols for ad hoc networks are either totally new stand-alone protocols, or in some cases incorporations of security mechanisms into obtainable protocols. Generally the obtainable safe routing protocols that have been future can be generally secret into two types, those that use hash chains, and those that in order to function require predefined trust relations. This method, jointly nodes can efficiently validate the legitimate traffic and distinguish the unauthenticated packets from outsider attackers. ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR AD-HOC NETWORK SECURITY SEAD: Safe Efficient Ad hoc Distance-vector routing protocol. A safe ad hoc network routing protocol that is established on the design of the Destination Sequenced Distance Vector routing protocol. To hold up employ of SEAD with hops of partial CPU processing abilities, and to guard against modification of the source address for a routing update and attacks in which an rejection of service attacks makes attempts to reason other nodes to use surplus network bandwidth or processing time of the network, efficient one way hash Chains but not cryptographic operations are used in the verification of the series number and the metric field of a routing table update message. When a node in SEAD sends a routing update, the node includes one hash value from the hash chain with each entry in that update. The nodes sets the purpose address in that entry to that target nodes address, the metric and series number to the values for that target in its routing table, and the hash value to the hash of the hash value conventional in the routing update entry from which it learned that route to that destination. When a node receives a routing inform, for each entry in that update, the node checks the verification on that entry, by the target address, sequence number, and metric in the conventional entry, together with the newest prior genuine hash value established by this node from that destinations hash chain. The hash value of each entry is hashed the right number of times and it is compared to the before authenticated v alue. Depending on this contrast the routing update is either established as authenticated, or discarded. Ariadne; Ariadne is a safe on-demand ad hoc routing protocol based on DSR that restricts attackers or the mutual hops from tampering with uncompromised routes containing of uncompromised hops, and also stops a lot of types of DOS attacks. In addition, Ariadne uses only extremely well-organized symmetric cryptographic primitives. To induce the objective of the authority of each field in a ROUTE REQUEST, the originator simply includes in the REQUEST a MAC computed with key over exclusive data. The object can with no trouble corroborate the authenticity and newness of the ROUTE REQUEST using the shared key. One-way hash functions are use to confirm that no hop was absent which is called per hop hashing. Three alternative methods to attain hop list verification. The TESLA protocol, digital signatures, and typical MACs. When Ariadne Route detection is used with TESLA, every node authenticates the original data in the REQUEST. The objective buffers and does not fire the REPLY awaiting midd le nodes can discharge the matching TESLA keys. Ariadne Route Discovery using MAC is the majority well-organized way of the three option verification mechanisms, but it asks couple wise communal keys among all nodes. The MAC list in the ROUTE REQUEST is computed by a key common among the object and the present node. The MACs are verified at the target and are not returned in the ROUTE REPLY. If Ariadne way detection is used with digital signatures, the MAC list in the ROUTE REQUEST becomes a signature list. SRP: The safe Routing Protocol consists of quite a lot of safety extensions that can be practical to existing ad hoc routing protocols as long as end-to-end verification. The one and only requirement of the future scheme is the sustained existence of a security association between the node initiating the query and the sought destination. The safety association is used to found a common secret between the two nodes, and the non mutable types of the exchanged routing messages are confined by this shared secret. The method is robust in the occurrence of a number of non-colluding nodes, and provides Routing Table Overflow: In a routing table spread out attack the malevolent node floods the network with bogus route formation packets to non existing nodes to overpower the routing protocol implementations in order to devour the resources of the participating nodes and interrupt the establishment of legal routes. The goal is to create enough routes to prevent new routes from being created or to engulf the protocol execution. Proactive routing protocols are more vulnerable to this attack, since they attempt to produce and preserve routes to all possible destinations. A spiteful node to apply this attack can simply send unnecessary route advertisements to the network. To apply this harasses in order to target a reactive protocol like AODV is to some extent more involved since two nodes are obligatory. The first node should make a genuine request for a route and the malicious node should reply with a forged address. Sleep Depravation: The sleep scarcity afflict aims at the utilization of store of a specific node by constantly keeping it busy in routing decisions. This attack floods the network with routing traffic in order to munch through battery life from the nodes and accessible bandwidth from the ad hoc network. The malicious node continually requirements for either existing or non-existing destinations forces the neighboring nodes to procedure and forward these packets and therefore munch through batteries and network bandwidth hindering the normal operation of the network. Location disclosure: Location disclosure is an attack that targets the solitude necessities of an ad hoc network. Through the use of traffic analysis techniques or with simpler probing and monitoring methods an attacker is able to discover the location of a node, and the structure of the network. If the locations of some of the intermediary nodes are known, one can gain information about the location of the destination node as well. Routing table poisoning: Routing protocols uphold tables which hold information on the subject of routes of the network. In poisoning attacks the malevolent nodes create and send untrue traffic, or modify legitimate messages from other nodes, in order to create false entries in the tables of the participating nodes. One more option is injecting a RREQ package with a high sequence number. This will reason that all other legal RREQ packets with lower sequence number will be deleted. Routing table poisoning attacks can result in selection of non-optimal routes, creation of routing loops, bottlenecks and even partitioning sure parts of the network. Black Hole: A malicious node uses the routing protocol to insert fake route answers to the route needs it receives promotion itself as having the straight path to a target whose packets it needs to cut off. Once the fake route has been recognized the mean node is able to become a member of the lively route and intercept the communication packets. Network traffic is diverted through the malicious node for eavesdropping, or be a focus for all traffic to it in order to execute a DOS by dropping the received packets or the first step to a man-in-the-middle attack. While the safety requirements for ad hoc networks are the similar the ones for fixed networks, namely ease of use, privacy, reliability, validation, and non-repudiation mobile wireless networks are usually more susceptible to information and physical safety fears than fixed wired networks. Securing wireless ad hoc networks is chiefly tricky for many reasons as well as vulnerability of channels and nodes, nonattendance of communications, dynamically altering topology and etc.; The wireless channel is available to both legal network users and malicious attackers. The abstract of centralized management makes the traditional security solutions based on certification establishment and on-line servers unsuitable. A malicious attacker can willingly become a router and disturb network operations by deliberately disobeying the protocol specifications. The nodes can move arbitrarily and liberally in any way and systematize themselves arbitrarily. They can stick together or leave the network at any time. The network topology changes regularly, rapidly and randomly which considerably alters the status of trust among nodes and adds the complexity to routing among the mobile nodes. The egoism that nodes in ad hoc networks may tend to reject providing services for the advantage of other nodes in order to keep their own possessions introduces new security issues that are not address in the infrastructure-based network Chapter No 3 Distributed Security Scheme for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks In difference to fixed networks a central certification power is not possible in ad hoc networks. Distributing the functionality of certification power over number of nodes is a probable solution. This can be got by creating n shares for a clandestine key and distributing them to n different node. Key can be generating by combining the shares using doorsill cryptography methods. Mobile ad-hoc networks are extremely active. Topology differences and link crack occur fairly often. Therefore, we require a safety answer which is active, too. Any malicious or disobedient nodes can produce antagonistic attacks. These types of attacks can gravely injure essential aspects of safety, such as veracity, confidentiality and space to yourself of the node. Current ad-hoc routing protocols are totally unsure of yourself. Furthermore, obtainable safe routing mechanisms are either too luxurious or have impractical necessities. In ad hoc network, safety solution should separate the attackers and compro mised nodes in the network. Proactively dividing the attackers make it sure that they cannot carry on to attack and waste the network resources in future. A safety solution should have lessening transparency over. Attacks beside ad-hoc routing protocols can be categorize as active or passive. A passive attack does not upset the functioning of the protocol, but tries to discover valuable information by listening to traffic. An active attack inserts arbitrary packets and tries to upset the operation of the protocol in order to bound the accessibility, gain confirmation, or attract packets meant to other nodes. In ad hoc network disobedient node can advertise its accessibility. Nearby nodes changs its route table with the new route and ahead the packet through the disobedient node. Misbehaving node can alter or even drop the packet. So mobile nodes must be able to prove the reliability of a new neighbor before adding it to the route table. Also it is imperative to care for the data pac kets from eavesdropping. Once the cluster member link has reputable a secured link, they can further switch symmetric key and encrypt data packet to ensure data in private and integrity. CLUSTER-BASED TOPOLOGY Clustering is a method by which nodes are placed into groups, called clusters. A cluster head is designated for SHCBK Protocol for Securing Ad Hoc Networks SHCBK Protocol for Securing Ad Hoc Networks Abstract With present advances in technology, wireless networks are getting more popularity. These networks let the users the liberty to travel from one location to another without disruption of their computing services. The Ad-hoc networks, are the subset of wireless networks, let you the configuration of a wireless network without the require for access point. Technology under development for wireless ad hoc networks has quickly become a crucial part of our life since it provides â€Å"anytime, anywhere† networking services for mobile users. Wireless ad hoc networks can be dynamically set up without relying on any pre-existing infrastructure, such as Public Key Infrastructure, and central management for communications. However, such infrastructure-less characteristic of the networks also makes them vulnerable to security attacks. Numerous protocols have been planned in order to attain a high degree of safety based on a mixture of human-mediated communication and an normal Dolev-Yao c ommunication medium. One of which is the Symmetrised Hash Commitment Before Knowledge protocol or the SHCBK protocol ( A. W. Roscoe and Long Nguyen, 2006). The protocol design seeks to optimise the amount of security that the humans can attain for a known quantity of work. This dissertation presents an implementation of the SHCBK protocol for securing ad hoc networks over Wi-Fi. Chapter 1 Introduction A wireless ad hoc network is a de-centralized wireless network. The network is called ad hoc for the reason that each hop is ready to send onward data for other hop, and so the resolving that which of hops will send the data to the forward hops is dynamically established on the network connectivity. This is in dissimilarity to wired networks in which routers execute the duty of routing. It is also in difference to organize the wireless networks. In which a particular node recognized as an admission point manages communication among other nodes. All taking part parties in an ad hoc network have the same opinion to recognize and send onward messages, to and from each other. With this type of elasticity, wireless networks have the capability to form anyplace, at any occasion, as long as two or more wireless users are enthusiastic to have the communicate between them. Mobile nodes inside an ad-hoc network move from one location to another. However, finding ways to model these movements i s not obvious. In order to evaluate an ad hoc network performance it is necessary to develop and use mobility models that accurately represent movements of the mobile nodes. In this paper we present performance evaluation of various entity mobility models in terms of the traveling patterns of mobile node. MANET is a self-configuring network that is formed automatically via wireless links by a collection of mobile nodes without the help of a fixed infrastructure or centralized management. The mobile nodes forward packets for each other, allowing communication among nodes outside wireless transmission range hop by hop. Due to dynamic infrastructure-less nature and be deficient in the centralized monitoring points, the ad hoc networks are susceptible to attacks. The Attacks on the ad- hoc network routing protocols can disturb the network performance and dependability. Wireless networks use radio waves to broadcast the signals and survive in essentially two dissimilar flavors, communica tions and ad-hoc. In communications mode all traffic is transmitted among The HOPs via an admission point which controls the network and gives it with the safety system. The most usually used normal for wireless networks is the 802.11 principles or Wi-Fi which in fact is not a standard but a entire relatives of principles using the same protocol. The safety in wireless networks by Wi-Fi consists of WEP, WPA and now lately WPA2 which is essentially a ended version of WPA. WPA was shaped as an middle safety system while WPA2 was finalized and experienced since the preceding system contained several serious weaknesses. Benefits and applications of ad-hoc Networks Ad-hoc networking need not want any admission points as contrasting to wireless networks in Communications mode. This makes them functional in a set of diverse applications. It is mainly used in Military applications and in save operations where the accessible communication communications Has been damaged or is unavailable, for example later than earthquakes and other disasters. But ad-hoc is these days also being used in a lot of commercial applications. Like we see that mobile phones and PDAs using the Bluetooth protocol system, seeing as it is quick and fairly simple to setup and doesnt need any additional tools. Characteristics and standards of ad-hoc As the wireless standard 802.11 does hold up ad-hoc networks, it is extremely limited since it doesnt offer routing among the nodes, so a hop can only arrive at the straight noticeable nodes in its place protocols similar to the Ad-hoc, On-demand Distance Vector protocol or Dynamic Source Routing protocol can not be used. These routing protocols are so called immediate routing protocols, sense that it gives a route to a target only when wanted. In difference the other usually used routing protocols on the Internet are practical sense that they will set up routes separately of the traffic in the network. This implies that the reactive network is quiet pending a connection that is wanted and thus lessens the overcrowding in the network. DSR is an even additional optimized protocol which doesnt need for the sending forwarding computers to have current routing tables but have a list of network addresses in the form of the packet. The protocol because of eavesdrops the limited network traffic and listens for this routing data and information included in the packets and adds it to its personal routing table. One of the major goals when scheming mobile ad-hoc networks where the nodes go about and the topology rapidly alters is to defend the network connectivity among the hops over potentially multi hop channels. To obtain multi hop connection you must offer one-hop connectivity throughout the link-layer and expand that to multi- hop connectivity throughout routing and data that is forwarding protocols in the network-layer. Many corporations make substantial investments in their wire- less infrastructure. For example, Microsofts IEEE 802.11 based Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy or else, to republish, to position on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Wireless (Wi-Fi) network consists of approximately 5,000 access points (APs) supporting 25,000 users each day in 277 buildings, covering more than 17 million square feet [10]. In addition to the equipment costs, the costs of planning, deploying, and maintaining such networks is substantial. Thus, it is important to develop infrastructure that improves the ability of Information Technology (IT) departments to manage and secure their wireless networks. In recent years, researchers have uncovered security vulnerability- ties in Wi-Fi networks [20]. They showed that the Wired Equiv- agency Protocol (WEP), the popular 802.11 security mechanism that most corporations were using at the time, was fundamentally flawed. In a series of highly publicized papers, they showed that 802.11 networks could be compromised easily. The community reacted quickly by developing and deploying alternate security so- lotions including VPNs, IEEE 802.1x [30], several variations of EAP [14], Smart cards, and more recently WPA [29]. Yet, the wire- less LAN (WLAN) security problem was not completely resolved. Last year, Microsoft conducted a series of interviews with WLAN administrators of several large and small organizations [10]. The goal of these interviews was to understand the difficulties involved in deploying and managing corporate WLANs. The issue of WLAN security came up repeatedly during these interviews. All administrators felt that WLAN security was a problem. They were unhappy with the quality of the tools they had at their disposal. Many of them would periodically walk around their buildings using WLAN scanning software looking for security vulnerabilities. Some hired expensive outside consultants to conduct security vulnerability analyses of their WLAN deployme nt, only to conclude that what they really needed was an on-going monitoring and alerting system. Most administrators believed that better systems to manage WLAN security are needed. Even after protocols such as IEEE 802.1x and WPA are deployed, corporate networks can be compromised by off-the-shelf 802.11 hardware and software. For example, an unauthorized AP can be connected to the corporate Ethernet, allowing unauthorized clients to connect to the corporate network. The rogue AP may be con- nected by a malicious person or, as is more often the case, by an employee who innocently connects an AP in his office without realizing that he is compromising the corporate network. A rogue AP can circumvent the elaborate security measures that the IT department may have put in place to protect the companys intellectual property. To test our assertion that people inadvertently compromise the security of their networks, we conducted an experiment in two large organizations that had secured their WLANs using one of the methods mentioned previously. We walked around with a WLAN- enabled laptop in a small section of the two campuses looking for APs to which we could connect. Chapter 2 SECURITY ATTACKS Here I attempts to provide a comprehensive overview of attacks and secure routing. It first analyzes the reason that ad hoc network is vulnerable to attacks. Then it presents the well known attacks and the popular secure protocols. Is out of its radio range, the cooperation of other nodes in the Network is needed. This is known as multi-hop communication. Therefore, each node must do something as both a host and a router at the same time. In most wireless networking environments in productive use today the users devices communicate either via some networking infrastructure in the form of base stations and a backbonenetwork,ordirectlywiththeirintended communication partner, e.g. by means of 802.11 in ad hoc networks In distinction a mobile ad-hoc network is a self-configuring network that is formed automatically via wireless links by a collection of mobile nodes without the help of a fixed infrastructure or centralized management. Every hop in the mobile ad-hoc networks is ready with a wireless transmitter and receiver, which allow it to communicate with other nodes in its radio communication area. Hops are more often share the same physical media. They broadcast and obtain signals at the same frequency band, and chase the same hopping series or spreading code. If the purpose node is not inside the broadcasting range of the sending node, then the sending node takes help of the intermediate hops to communicate with the purpose node by relaying the messages hop by hop. Fig.2 describes the Mobile ad-hoc network. In order for a node to forward a packet to a node that TYPES OF THE SECURITY ATTACKS Securing wireless ad hoc networks is a highly demanding issue. Due to dynamic scattered infrastructure-less nature and be deficient in of centralized monitoring points, the ad hoc networks are susceptible to a variety of attacks. Ad hoc networks have to manage with the same kinds of vulnerabilities as their wired counterparts. As well as with new vulnerabilities specific to the ad hoc context. In addition, conventional vulnerabilities are also accentuated by the ad hoc paradigm. Initially, the wireless channel is available for the both genuine network users and cruel attackers. The ad hoc networks are vulnerable to attacks ranging from static eavesdropping to active prying. Secondly, the be short of an online CA or Trusted Third Party adds the complexity to organize security mechanisms. Thirdly, mobile devices be inclined to have limited power consumption and calculation capabilities which make it more vulnerable to Denial of Service attacks and incapable to execute computation-heavy algorithms like public key algorithms Fourthly, in MANETs, therearemore probabilities for trusted node being compromised and then life form used by adversary to launch attacks on networks. Lastly, node mobility and recurrent topology changes enforce frequent networking reconfiguration which creates more chances for attacks, for example, it is difficult to discriminate between stale routing information and faked routing information. Ad -hoc networks attacks can be differentiated as passive and active. Passive attack signifies that the assailant does not send any message, but just listens to the channel. Passive attacks do not disturb the process of a protocol, but only makes the attempts to find out valuable information. Active attacks may either being directed to disturb the normal operation of a exact node or target the performance of the ad hoc network as a whole. For passive attacks, the attacker listens to the channel and packets that are containing clandestine information might be eavesdropped, which violates privacy. In a wireless environment it is usually not possible to notice this attack, as it does not create any new traffic in the network. Active attacks, counting injecting packets to unacceptable destinations into the network, deleting packets, changing the contents of packets, and impersonating other hops infringe ease of use, veracity, verification, and non-repudiation. Different from the passive attacks, active attacks can be detected and ultimately avoided by the legal nodes that contribute in an ad hoc network . We broadly classify these attacks as passive and active. The classification is important for understanding the strengths and limitations of the DAIR security management system. Eavesdropping Eavesdropping is a passive attack. The attacker passively listens to the traffic on the wireless network and gleans useful information. The listener may use sophisticated code breaking techniques. Countermeasures include use of better encryption techniques as well as physical security measures such as use of radio-opaque wallpaper. Passive attacks are difficult, if not impossible, to detect and we do not address them in this paper. Intrusion Any attack that allows a user to gain unauthorized access to the network is called an Intrusion attack. Intrusion attacks are active attacks and several such attacks are possible. An attacker can compromise the corporate network by gaining physical access to its wired network and connecting a wireless AP to it. The AP creates a â€Å"hole† through which unauthorized clients can connect, bypassing the elaborate security measures that the IT department may have put in place. A similar attack can be carried out by using ad-hoc wireless networks instead of APs. A corporate network may also be compromised when an attacker finds and uses an unsecured AP connected to the network by an unsuspecting employee. The widespread availability of inexpensive, easy-to- deploy APs and wireless routers has exacerbated this problem. As mentioned earlier, we found several unsecured APs in large organizations. The DAIR security management system can detect both rogue APs and rogue ad-hoc networks. Another way a corporate network can be compromised is when an attacker obtains the credentials (e.g., WEP passwords, IEEE 802.1x certificates) needed to connect to the corporate ne twork. The DAIR security management system can not currently detect such attacks. Denial of Service (DoS) Denial of Service attacks are active attacks. A diversity of DoS attacks are possible. Some DoS attacks exploit flaws in the IEEE 802.11 protocol. For example, a disassociation attack is where the attacker sends a series of fake disassociation or deauthentication messages, causing legitimate clients to disconnect from the AP. In a NAV attack, the attacker generates packets with large duration values in the frame header, thereby forcing legiti- mate clients to wait for long periods of time before accessing the network . In a DIFS attack, the attacker exploits certain timing- related features in the IEEE 802.11 protocol to aggressively steal bandwidth from legitimate users. In all three cases, the attacker transmits packets in an abnormal way, either by generating non-compliant packets, or by transmitting compliant packets at an abnormally high rate. The DAIR security management system can detect such attacks. DoS attacks are also possible by creating large amount of RF noise in the ne ighborhood of the network. The DAIR security management system can detect such attacks by comparing current observations with historical data observed from multiple vantage points. DoS attacks can also be mounted by gaining access to the corporate wired network and attacking the APs from the wired side. The DAIR system does not handle DoS attacks on the wired network. Phishing Phishing is an active attack. An attacker sets up a wireless AP that masquerades as a legitimate corporate AP (same SSID, per- haps even same BSSIDs). If the client does not use mutual authentication, it is possible for the attacker to lure unsuspecting legiti- mate users to connect to its AP. The attacker can then use a variety of techniques to extract private information (for example, sniff for passwords). The DAIR system can detect phishing attacks. How- ever, we do not describe solutions to phishing attacks in this paper. ACTIVE ATTACKS SECURITY ATTACKS Certain active attacks can be easily performed alongside an ad -hoc network. Understanding possible shape of attacks is for all time the first step towards increasing good safety solutions. Based on this danger analysis and the recognized capabilities of the potential attackers, several well recognized attacks that can target the operation of a routing protocol in an ad hoc network are discussed. Impersonation. In this kind of attack, nodes may be clever to join the network untraceable or can able to send the false routing data/information, camouflaged as some other trusted node. Wormhole. The wormhole attack involves the collaboration stuck between two attackers. One attacker gets the routing traffic at one point of the network and changes their path to another point in the network that shares a confidential communication link between the attackers, then selectively injects tunnel traffic back into the network. The two colluding assailant can potentially deform the topology and set up routes under the control over the wormhole link. Rushing attacks: The ROUTE REQUESTs for this Discovery sanded forwarded by the attacker can be the 1st to approach each neighbor of the target, then any way exposed by this Route Discovery will comprise a hop through the attacker. That is, when a neighbor of the target gets the hurried REQUEST from the attacker, and it forwards that REQUEST, and will not send onward any further REQUESTs from this Route Discovery. When non-attacking REQUESTs arrive later at these nodes, they will discard those legitimate REQUESTs. Blackmail: The attack incurs outstanding to be short of of genuineness and it grants stipulation for any node to corrupt other nodes legal information. Hops more often keep the data/ information of apparent malevolent nodes in a blacklist. This attack is pertinent alongside routing protocols that use mechanisms for the recognition of malicious nodes and spread messages that try to blacklist the criminal. An attacker may make such coverage messages and tell other nodes in the network to put in that hop to their blacklists and cut off legitimate nodes from the network. Chapter 3 Secure Routing The previously presented ad hoc routing protocols with no security contemplation assume that all participating nodes do not maliciously troublemaking the operation of the protocol. However, the continuation of malicious entities cannot be unnoticed in any system, particularly in open ones like ad hoc networks. Safe routing protocols manage with malicious nodes that can disturb the right performance of a routing protocol by changing routing information. By fabricating the wrong routing data or information and by impersonating other nodes. These safe routing protocols for ad hoc networks are either totally new stand-alone protocols, or in some cases incorporations of security mechanisms into obtainable protocols. Generally the obtainable safe routing protocols that have been future can be generally secret into two types, those that use hash chains, and those that in order to function require predefined trust relations. This method, jointly nodes can efficiently validate the legitimate traffic and distinguish the unauthenticated packets from outsider attackers. ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR AD-HOC NETWORK SECURITY SEAD: Safe Efficient Ad hoc Distance-vector routing protocol. A safe ad hoc network routing protocol that is established on the design of the Destination Sequenced Distance Vector routing protocol. To hold up employ of SEAD with hops of partial CPU processing abilities, and to guard against modification of the source address for a routing update and attacks in which an rejection of service attacks makes attempts to reason other nodes to use surplus network bandwidth or processing time of the network, efficient one way hash Chains but not cryptographic operations are used in the verification of the series number and the metric field of a routing table update message. When a node in SEAD sends a routing update, the node includes one hash value from the hash chain with each entry in that update. The nodes sets the purpose address in that entry to that target nodes address, the metric and series number to the values for that target in its routing table, and the hash value to the hash of the hash value conventional in the routing update entry from which it learned that route to that destination. When a node receives a routing inform, for each entry in that update, the node checks the verification on that entry, by the target address, sequence number, and metric in the conventional entry, together with the newest prior genuine hash value established by this node from that destinations hash chain. The hash value of each entry is hashed the right number of times and it is compared to the before authenticated v alue. Depending on this contrast the routing update is either established as authenticated, or discarded. Ariadne; Ariadne is a safe on-demand ad hoc routing protocol based on DSR that restricts attackers or the mutual hops from tampering with uncompromised routes containing of uncompromised hops, and also stops a lot of types of DOS attacks. In addition, Ariadne uses only extremely well-organized symmetric cryptographic primitives. To induce the objective of the authority of each field in a ROUTE REQUEST, the originator simply includes in the REQUEST a MAC computed with key over exclusive data. The object can with no trouble corroborate the authenticity and newness of the ROUTE REQUEST using the shared key. One-way hash functions are use to confirm that no hop was absent which is called per hop hashing. Three alternative methods to attain hop list verification. The TESLA protocol, digital signatures, and typical MACs. When Ariadne Route detection is used with TESLA, every node authenticates the original data in the REQUEST. The objective buffers and does not fire the REPLY awaiting midd le nodes can discharge the matching TESLA keys. Ariadne Route Discovery using MAC is the majority well-organized way of the three option verification mechanisms, but it asks couple wise communal keys among all nodes. The MAC list in the ROUTE REQUEST is computed by a key common among the object and the present node. The MACs are verified at the target and are not returned in the ROUTE REPLY. If Ariadne way detection is used with digital signatures, the MAC list in the ROUTE REQUEST becomes a signature list. SRP: The safe Routing Protocol consists of quite a lot of safety extensions that can be practical to existing ad hoc routing protocols as long as end-to-end verification. The one and only requirement of the future scheme is the sustained existence of a security association between the node initiating the query and the sought destination. The safety association is used to found a common secret between the two nodes, and the non mutable types of the exchanged routing messages are confined by this shared secret. The method is robust in the occurrence of a number of non-colluding nodes, and provides Routing Table Overflow: In a routing table spread out attack the malevolent node floods the network with bogus route formation packets to non existing nodes to overpower the routing protocol implementations in order to devour the resources of the participating nodes and interrupt the establishment of legal routes. The goal is to create enough routes to prevent new routes from being created or to engulf the protocol execution. Proactive routing protocols are more vulnerable to this attack, since they attempt to produce and preserve routes to all possible destinations. A spiteful node to apply this attack can simply send unnecessary route advertisements to the network. To apply this harasses in order to target a reactive protocol like AODV is to some extent more involved since two nodes are obligatory. The first node should make a genuine request for a route and the malicious node should reply with a forged address. Sleep Depravation: The sleep scarcity afflict aims at the utilization of store of a specific node by constantly keeping it busy in routing decisions. This attack floods the network with routing traffic in order to munch through battery life from the nodes and accessible bandwidth from the ad hoc network. The malicious node continually requirements for either existing or non-existing destinations forces the neighboring nodes to procedure and forward these packets and therefore munch through batteries and network bandwidth hindering the normal operation of the network. Location disclosure: Location disclosure is an attack that targets the solitude necessities of an ad hoc network. Through the use of traffic analysis techniques or with simpler probing and monitoring methods an attacker is able to discover the location of a node, and the structure of the network. If the locations of some of the intermediary nodes are known, one can gain information about the location of the destination node as well. Routing table poisoning: Routing protocols uphold tables which hold information on the subject of routes of the network. In poisoning attacks the malevolent nodes create and send untrue traffic, or modify legitimate messages from other nodes, in order to create false entries in the tables of the participating nodes. One more option is injecting a RREQ package with a high sequence number. This will reason that all other legal RREQ packets with lower sequence number will be deleted. Routing table poisoning attacks can result in selection of non-optimal routes, creation of routing loops, bottlenecks and even partitioning sure parts of the network. Black Hole: A malicious node uses the routing protocol to insert fake route answers to the route needs it receives promotion itself as having the straight path to a target whose packets it needs to cut off. Once the fake route has been recognized the mean node is able to become a member of the lively route and intercept the communication packets. Network traffic is diverted through the malicious node for eavesdropping, or be a focus for all traffic to it in order to execute a DOS by dropping the received packets or the first step to a man-in-the-middle attack. While the safety requirements for ad hoc networks are the similar the ones for fixed networks, namely ease of use, privacy, reliability, validation, and non-repudiation mobile wireless networks are usually more susceptible to information and physical safety fears than fixed wired networks. Securing wireless ad hoc networks is chiefly tricky for many reasons as well as vulnerability of channels and nodes, nonattendance of communications, dynamically altering topology and etc.; The wireless channel is available to both legal network users and malicious attackers. The abstract of centralized management makes the traditional security solutions based on certification establishment and on-line servers unsuitable. A malicious attacker can willingly become a router and disturb network operations by deliberately disobeying the protocol specifications. The nodes can move arbitrarily and liberally in any way and systematize themselves arbitrarily. They can stick together or leave the network at any time. The network topology changes regularly, rapidly and randomly which considerably alters the status of trust among nodes and adds the complexity to routing among the mobile nodes. The egoism that nodes in ad hoc networks may tend to reject providing services for the advantage of other nodes in order to keep their own possessions introduces new security issues that are not address in the infrastructure-based network Chapter No 3 Distributed Security Scheme for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks In difference to fixed networks a central certification power is not possible in ad hoc networks. Distributing the functionality of certification power over number of nodes is a probable solution. This can be got by creating n shares for a clandestine key and distributing them to n different node. Key can be generating by combining the shares using doorsill cryptography methods. Mobile ad-hoc networks are extremely active. Topology differences and link crack occur fairly often. Therefore, we require a safety answer which is active, too. Any malicious or disobedient nodes can produce antagonistic attacks. These types of attacks can gravely injure essential aspects of safety, such as veracity, confidentiality and space to yourself of the node. Current ad-hoc routing protocols are totally unsure of yourself. Furthermore, obtainable safe routing mechanisms are either too luxurious or have impractical necessities. In ad hoc network, safety solution should separate the attackers and compro mised nodes in the network. Proactively dividing the attackers make it sure that they cannot carry on to attack and waste the network resources in future. A safety solution should have lessening transparency over. Attacks beside ad-hoc routing protocols can be categorize as active or passive. A passive attack does not upset the functioning of the protocol, but tries to discover valuable information by listening to traffic. An active attack inserts arbitrary packets and tries to upset the operation of the protocol in order to bound the accessibility, gain confirmation, or attract packets meant to other nodes. In ad hoc network disobedient node can advertise its accessibility. Nearby nodes changs its route table with the new route and ahead the packet through the disobedient node. Misbehaving node can alter or even drop the packet. So mobile nodes must be able to prove the reliability of a new neighbor before adding it to the route table. Also it is imperative to care for the data pac kets from eavesdropping. Once the cluster member link has reputable a secured link, they can further switch symmetric key and encrypt data packet to ensure data in private and integrity. CLUSTER-BASED TOPOLOGY Clustering is a method by which nodes are placed into groups, called clusters. A cluster head is designated for

Male and Female Roles in Sexual Selection :: Biology

Missing results graphs Why It Matters Sexual selection occurs across all species and is a key part of evolution. It allows animals to increase their fitness. Here are several interesting examples of cryptic female choice and male competition: 1) Males may perform courtship dances to show off their good genes. One species in which courtship dances can be observed are jumping spiders. Male spiders of this species wave their legs and arms to show females their abilities. Females choose a mate after seeing the dances. 2) One way for females to find a suitable mate is based on the resources a male will be able to provide. For instance, in the case of elephant seals, males fight over territories to win over a female. The â€Å"winner† of the fight shows the female that he has a territory and that he will be able to defend the offspring. 3) Additionally, in peacocks, the males have elaborate tails that attract females. Females choose a mate based on the ability of a male to show off his tail. The tail indicates to a female that a male has â€Å"good† genes to contribute to offspring. 4) In some animals, the roles of the genders may be switched. In seahorses, the males are responsible for giving birth and raising the offspring. In this case, males have more at stake and so the males are the â€Å"choosier† mate. They choose a female mate based on the female’s characteristics. 5) These ideas of sexual selection and cryptic female choice can be applied to humans. Women choose mates based on career perspectives, attractiveness, and resources. All these allow her to ensure her children will be healthy and successful. As you can see, it is important to research sexual selection across various species’. Similar mechanisms of selection are present in all animals. By learning how these mechanisms act in one species, it is possible to gain insight into the behavior of all animals, including human beings. Introduction Male Competition Versus Female Choice†¦ The sexual â€Å"arms race† is constantly going on within members of a species. While both male and female are trying to pass on their genes to the next generation, they both try to do this in a different way. Females are attempting to obtain genetic material from the best possible male in order to produce the fittest offspring, while males are trying solely to pass their own genes on to the next generation.

Case Study On Nando’s Restaurant Essay

Introduction This report is to outline business analysis on Nando’s restaurant in Singapore. In this report, we will perform environment analysis on the market in Singapore. We will make use of SWOT analysis and also PESTEL analysis to perform this. Last but not least we will end it with aconclusion/evaluation to sum the whole evaluation up. Environment Analysis Environment analysis is a evaluation on the possible effects (both internally and externally) and conditions that will affect an organisation survival and growth. In order to develop strategy to move into a new market like Singapore, it is necessary to look into factors that may post a threat to the company or even discover new opportunities for the company. In order to identify this, we will be using the SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunity & threats) analysis and PESTLE (political, economic, social cultural, technological, legal & environment) analysis to analyse the factors. 2.1 : Internal and External Factors for Nando’s INTERNAL Inside the Organisation Can be controlled by the organisation. (Example as of below.) HR Strategy Process Culture Money factor Departments EXTERNAL Outside the Organisation Cannot be control by the organisation. (Example as of below.) Government policies Natural disaster Economic policies Competition Diversity of workforce Technology Exchange rate Weather ENVIRONMENT  NANDO’s Opportunity, Threats Strength, Weaknesses SWOT ANALYSIS SWOT analysis is use to evaluate the strength, weaknesses, opportunity and threats involved in a business venture. A SWOT analysis is important as it help companies to inform later steps in planning to achieve their objective. Using SWOT can generate meaningful information on each category and to plan ahead base on the point listed out. Below table 1 is the SWOT analysis on Nando’s. STRENGTHS Branding. Outlets available globally. Australia, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa, UK, USA and many more. This shows how well the business has  developed with so many branches over different country. Healthier Choice. Chickens are delivered fresh and not frozen. Marinated for 24 hours with absolutely no preservatives, MSG’s, colorant or artificial flavouring. Chickens fats are trim-ed and flame grill, making it more healthier. Differentiated. Portuguese Flame grilled chicken. Said to be the best. Sauces are unique with secret recipe that are not let known to public. Competitors unable to copy it’s style. Finances. Business opened globally. Stable business with high revenues. Comparable with it’s competitors like KFC etc.etc. Good internal marketing. Staffs are happy working in the chained restaurants. Good values adopted in the company. Good staffs are driven by good environment and of course better food and services are produced. Affordable price. Price are quite satisfactory even though they are of restaurant based environment. Unique taste. The chicken prepare is combine with a variety of the sauces. Sauces are of different taste, very unique. Other brands are unable to come out with so many different sauces that good. Nutrition Values showed on the menu. Singaporeans are being more and more health conscience. Giving them the option to choose how many calories they want to intake is a plus points to the company. Weakness Not Halad. Singapore is a multi religion country. Muslims consist approx twenty percent of the population. Hence it has not capture the market of the muslim community. Lack of extended services. Major related business like KFC, they offer deliveries and also allows consumers to order online. Nando’s do not have this kind of services that could be offered to the consumers in Singapore. Lack of marketing advertisements. Comparing with KFC, Nando’s are not fully known by people of all ages in Singapore. However KFC do. There were not much advertisement posted either on online platform or even in the media. Not many outlet. As research on the number of outlets in Singapore, there are only a total of nine outlet’s in Singapore so far. Weak R&D. Slows down or even no growth to the company. Competitors will out innovate Nando’s. Lack of promotions to attract customers. Opportunity Government incestives on business from overseas. Singapore government encourage overseas investor to set foot and do business in Singapore. By  giving incentives, Nando’s could do with more outlets or even save a little cost to spend on other areas. Rising demands for healthier food/ choice. Singaporeans are getting more and more conscience in what they eat. A actual figure of the calories for each dish could actually gives Nando’s a boost in their sales as consumers would rather know what they are eating rather than eating what they do not know. Increasing population. Singapore are becoming more and more populated with foreign talents coming in to work and set place in Singapore. Opening more branches, making it almost available everywhere could help Nando’s in increasing it’s revenues. Rising of malls. Government are building more and more malls, giving Nando’s more opportunities to expand it business. Airport. Singapore governments are coming out with T4 and T5. Internet/ use of social media. Singapore are getting more and more IT saavy. People do transactions online. Or look for alternatives in food through online media. CSR. Organising events to shows consumers what the company is doing. Threats Rising cost of livings. Singapore is the most expensive cities in the world. May make consumers to rethink to go for cheaper alternatives when it comes to eating out. Diseases. Nando’s menus consist of mainly chickens. If bird flu were to break out, it will greatly affect the business of Nando’s Competitors. Compeitors giving a better edge/ better promotions/ better advertising techniques could make consumers go to the competitors Most expensive cities. Case of opening 10 outlets in Singapore VS opening 10 outlets in Malaysia. Economic crisis. After conducting the SWOT analysis of Nando’s, the business can be expanded greatly if Nando’s were to go the ‘ E-commerce ‘ way of doing business as what KFC and Macdonald’s are adopting. Nando’s can do with hiring a group of IT professionals to come up with a better webpage that could do all these functions. Nando’s can emphasize more money on it’s advertisement to make it a well known brand in Singapore, being a long term investment in Singapore market. Economics in Singapore is doing not so bad and in long term wise, Nando’s will stand to get benefits out of it. PEST Analysis SWOT analysis is use to study company’s business Strength, weakness,  opportunity and threats in a company. Studying SWOT on a company is not enough. If Nando’s were to move in it’s business available globally, they have to study the country political,economic, social cultural and technology behaviour to enter it’s market in to the country. In this case, PEST analysis is used on Singapore to analysis it’s potential in setting up business in Singapore. The PEST analysis of Singapore is in Table 2. POLITICAL Government seeking foreign investors. GLOBAL INVESTOR PROGRAMME (GIP) http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/ready-to-invest/setting-up/entering-singapore.htmlIncestives for business. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/ready-to-invest/incentives-for-businesses.htmlLow level of corruptions. Ranked no.7 in the world and no.1 in asia for least corruption in the economy. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/facts-and-rankings/rankings.htmlStable government. No protest was made to overrule the Singapore government. Singaporeans quite satisfied with the system Singapore government had in place. Uses the Parliamentary system of government based on the Westminster model . http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/facts-and-rankings/facts.htmlStrict regulations. Trade agreement. Employment law. Singapore has talented workforce. Government are providing fundings to train professionals up. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/ready-to-invest/setting-up/recruitment.htmlGovernment spendings on Infrastructure. EG. RWS, Casinos, MBS ECONOMIC Low Taxes. Singapore has one of the lowest taxes compared to different country. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/ready-to-invest/setting-up/taxation.htmlBest investments potential. US based research institute Business Environment Risk Intelligience (BERI) ranked Singapore as first out of fifty Major investment destination.  http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/facts-and-rankings/rankings.htmlHigh standards of living. Singapore ranked 25 for best place to live work and play. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/facts-and-rankings/rankings.htmlSpending power Unemployment rates. Singapore is one of the countries with the lowest employment rate. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/facts-and-rankings/facts.htmlStrong currency. Income level. Most Singaporean holds job of the medium class level. Basically Singaporean has more people to the medium income and high income class. Impor t and Export access. Strategically located. Labour cost. SOCIAL CULTURAL Busy worklife. Most of the working class people have a busy work life. Some of these people have to work over time sometimes. The cultural in Singapore. Therefore many people will dine out instead of cooking at home. In one family at least 80 percent of the members will be working. Therefore high chance people will dine out instead of having a homecook meal at home. Multi-religion. Statistic shows the largest population is of Chinese in Singapore. Therefore when coming up with strategic planning we will have to focus on this target group. Not forgetting the muslims in Singapore which comes in second place. http://www.edb.gov.sg/content/edb/en/why-singapore/about-singapore/facts-and-rankings/facts.htmlYounger generations taking more to Western culture. Education. Singapore government are focusing to give proper educations to Singapore. Not forgetting foreigner students. They plays a part of Singapore economy when they come over Singapore to study. Aging population. Tech saavy. People in Singapore nowadays carries smartphones around. Ordering of food/ tickets or E-shopping is very common nowadays. Family dynamics. Low birth rates. Fast paced society. People would prefer fast food than casual dining as they can pick and go to fill their stomach before moving on to do other things. Technological Most IT saavy country. A lot of the business in Singapore are starting to adopt the IT way of resolving things. Eg, Using of softwares to get things done. Automated machines etcetc. High usage of IT. Every aspects in life of a Singapore, we can see IT gadget/devices anywhere. For example in buses, people are using ez-link cards to tap on the machines. Topping up cards with self-service kiosk. Advertisements on television located in shopping malls. Ordering of food using ipads. Etcetc) IT are common in SG. High percentage of people owns a laptops, smartphones, desktops to ease their life. These items are easily available anywhere and it is not as expensive as comparable as last time. Their price are very affordable to Singaporeans here. Use of smartphones. Singaporeans use smartphone to communicate, or even making purchase online. Why queue for movie tickets? Where you can make purchase online and collect the ticket afterwards. This make e-commerce rather popular in Singapore. Strong IT infrastructure Ecommerce  IBanking. Singaporeans uses iBanking for solution instead of queueing in the bank for hours to settle and bank related issues. Communication advancement. Credit card Usages High Security Systems One of the key advantage to Nando’s is the high finances. Being a business available globally, it is already making quite a profit out of it. With the help of the Singapore government with the rules and regulations for foreign investor, it will help Nando’s greatly in setting up business here. Attractive labour market , policies, infrastructure and financing efficiency also have make Singapore an attractive place for Nando’s to set foot on. However to expand the business more, Nando’s have to try to get in to IT more has more and more businesses are doing their business through internet platform. By not doing so they have already made one less target consumers to focus on. Conclusion All business benefits from the SWOT analysis. They benefit from completing a SWOT analysis on their compeitiors. PEST analysis can then provide some  feedbacks into the economic aspects by the PEST analysis. These feedbacks is then ranked and and make relatively important strategic decisions. Singapore is a favourable location to set up business here. Of all the four points in the PEST analysis it has fulfil all 4 of criterias to be a effective place to set up business. However Nando’s will have to segments their target consumers to at least target 75% of the consumers in Singapore. To further improve on it’s business it could probably focus it’s business to more of the IT aspects and have their business done online also.

Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts Essay

Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts. They were treated like that simply because they were different. Mental people were thought to be almost like a different species. Black people were considered outcasts because they had different skin-colour to white people. Also women were treated like property that belonged to men. The novel was written during the Great Depression, where jobs and employment were scarce. The USA was quite a poor country back then. Lennie is considered an outcast because he is mentally disabled. Mentally disabled peopled in that time were treated badly. They were locked up and separated from the rest of society. This is known as segregation. They also use to be sterilised. This means that they weren’t allowed to have babies or reproduce. Those are all very horrible. However, lennie was not treated like any other mental people. This is because he has George to look after him, and many other mentally disabled people didn’t have anybody to care for them or to look after them. But Lennie had that someone, and it was George, so that is what’s different about Lennie. In the ranch, however, lennie was considered an outcast. We know this because lennie says to crooks, ‘Ever’body went †¦ slim, George and ever’body. George says I gotta stay here.’ This shows that Lennie is not allowed to go into town like the rest. He’s not considered good enough do anything with the lads. Lennie is not allowed to play games, such as horseshoe, with the others. ‘From outside came the clang of horseshoe†¦ only Lennie was in the barn.’ This shows that while the others played their games lennie was made to stay inside the barn. He is like an outsider or a refugee. Crooks is considered an outcast simply because he is black. In those days, black people were treated very badly. They were treated differently from white people. Black people were often never called by their first names. Crooks is considered an outcast on the ranch because he’s black and isn’t referred to his real name, it’s either ‘crooks’ or ‘nigger’. Crooks also has his pride ‘he is a proud and aloof man’. This means that crooks is not allowed inside the bunk house because he’s black. He’s allowed to play sports outside the bunk house, but not inside it, which is why he had a separate room. ‘I ain’t wanted in the bunk house †¦ cause I’m black.’ This shows the racial issue of how black men did not mix with whites. Crooks is being segregated in this way. That is also another reason why crooks is an outcast. Curley’s wife is presented as an outcast. This is because women in those times were treated as a piece of property by the men. They may have also been treated as a sex object by their husbands; there to cook, clean and have babies. In the ranch Curley’s wife is considered an outcast because she’s a woman. Also she is related to the boss. She is not allowed to play horseshoe or go into town or even talk to anyone. We know that when she was in the barn with lennie, ‘I get lonely†¦ you can talk to people, but I can’t talk to nobody but Curly’. This shows us that everyone else can talk with whom they like, but she can only talk to her husband. In conclusion, 1930’s America is presented as a racist country who thinks black should be separated in terms of class. It is presented as a country that thinks mentally disabled people should be separated from the rest of society. It was also a sexist country who treated women very badly. A very uncivilized country.

Ships

Ships have always represented a major capital investment for their owners. Even the earliest ocean going ships, although small, would have represented a major investment at the time and a very risky one... Shipping finance has become a generic term referring to the financing of maritime projects, which encompasses not just shipping, but also other sub-sectors like ports, shipyards, and containers. However, in the following section financing of shipping projects is confined.Shipping is a capital-intensive industry. Vessels constitute almost 90 percent of the fixed assets (net block and capital work in progress) of a typical shipping company. A LNG carrier costs around USD 250 million, a double-hulled VLCC costs around USD 90 million, a Handysized chemical ship is around USD 70 million. But ship values change up to 60 per cent in a few months. In such a scenario, a shipowner or a potential shipowner wishing to acquire a vessel finds a considerable gap in his personal funds availabil ity and additional funds requirement.Shipping finance has to a large extent remained a specialty sector on account of a number of unique characteristics associated with the shipping industry such as unsettled markets, international service, mobile assets and others. Despite the complications involved in shipping finance, sophisticated financial instruments are conspicuous by their absence. In contrast, asset-based financing in industries with a similar profile like Airways have had highly sophisticated instruments to match the prevalent risk-return structure. Internationally, term lending backed by security in the form of collateral and mortgage has been the most prevalent form of financial assistance given to shipping companies. Globally, governments have provided substantial financial support to respective shipping industries either directly or indirectly. The growth of the maritime industry, especially shipping, in countrie...

Palenque Royal Tomb and Temple Inscriptions

Palenque Royal Tomb and Temple Inscriptions The Temple of the Inscription at Palenque is probably one of the most famous monuments of the whole Maya area. The temple is located on the southern side of the main plaza of Palenque. It owes its name to the fact that its walls are covered with one of the longest carved inscription of the Maya area, including 617 glyphs. The construction of the temple began around AD 675, by the important king of Palenque K’inich Janaab’ Pakal or Pakal the Great and was completed by his son Kan Balam II to honor his father, who died in A.D. 683. The temple sits atop a stepped pyramid of eight superimposed levels that reach a height of 21 meters (ca 68 feet). On its back wall, the pyramid is adjoined to a natural hill. The temple itself is composed by two passageways divided by a series of pillars, covered by a vaulted roof. The temple has five doorways, and the pillars that form the doorways are decorated with stucco images of Palenque’s main gods, Pakal’s mother, Lady Sak K’uk’, and Pakal’s son Kan Balam II. The roof of the temple is decorated with a roof comb, a construction element typical of Palenque’s architecture. Both the temple and pyramid were covered by a thick layer of stucco and painted, most likely painted red, as was common for many Maya buildings. The Temple of the Inscriptions Today Archaeologists agree that the temple had at least three construction phases, and all of them are visible today. The eight levels of the stepped pyramid, the temple, and the narrow stairway at its center correspond to the earliest construction phase, whereas the wider eight steps at the base of the pyramid, along with the nearby balustrade and platform were built during to a later phase. In 1952, the Mexican archaeologist Alberto Ruz Lhuillier, who was in charge of the excavation work, noticed that one of the slabs that covered the floor of the temple presented one hole at each corner that could be used to lift the stone. Lhuillier and his crew lifted the stone and encountered a steep stairway filled with rubble and stones that went many meters down into the pyramid. Removing the backfill from the tunnel took almost two years, and, in the process, they encountered many offerings of jade, shell, and pottery that speak to the importance of the temple and pyramid. The Royal Tomb of Pakal the Great Lhuilliers stairway ended about 25 meters (82 feet) below the surface and at its end, the archaeologists found a large stone box with the bodies of six sacrificed individuals. On the wall next to the box on the left side of the room, a large triangular slab covered the access to the funerary chamber of K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, king of Palenque from AD 615 to 683. The funerary chamber is a vaulted room of about 9 x 4 meters (ca 29 x 13 feet). At its center sits the large stone sarcophagus made out of a single limestone slab. The surface of the stone block was carved to house the body of the king and it was then covered by a stone slab. Both the stone slab and the sides of the sarcophagus are covered with carved images portraying human figures emerging from trees. Pakals Sarcophagus The most famous part is the carved image represented on the top of the slab that covers the sarcophagus. Here, the three levels of the Maya worldthe sky, the earth, and the underworldare connected by a cross representing the tree of life, from which Pakal seems to emerge to new life. This image has often been dubbed â€Å"the astronaut† by pseudoscientists, who tried to prove that this individual was not the Maya king but an extraterrestrial who reached the Maya area and shared his knowledge with the ancient inhabitants and for this reason was considered a deity. A rich series of offerings accompanied the king in his travel to the afterlife. The sarcophagus lid was covered with jade and shell ornaments, elegant plates and vessels were disposed in front and around the walls of the chamber, and at its southern side was recovered the famous stucco head portraying Pakal. Within the sarcophagus, the body of the king was adorned with the famous jade mask, along with jade and shell earplugs, pendants, necklaces, bracelets, and rings. In his right hand, Pakal held a squared piece of jade and in his left one a sphere of the same material. Source Martin Simon and Nikolai Grube, 2000, Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens, Thames and Hudson, London

Jump Start Your Career as an Administrative Freelancer

Jump Start Your Career as an Administrative Freelancer Working as a freelancer provides more flexibility in employment and allows you  to pick and choose the jobs you  want to do. Administrative freelancers find that they can also apply their office skills to earn a living similar to an in-house administrative employee. What’s special about  administrative professionals is that they have talents in multiple areas, so they can choose whether to concentrate on one specific area, such as bookkeeping, or take on several jobs in several different areas.How to Start Out as an Administrative FreelancerYou can find work as an administrative freelancer by using your skills. Think about the talents  you possess and make a list. Include what you enjoy doing the most and what you are best at doing. Do you enjoy customer service, support projects related to sales or management, accounting, scheduling or other facets of administrative work? Doing job searches in each area widens your potential work base and gives you the opportunity to pick and choose the jobs you like the best.Finding WorkThe first thing a freelance worker needs to know is where to find jobs. The Internet offers multiple job sites to search for freelance work, advertised by different companies. There are also sites that offer multiple listings from different companies that you can search. TheJobNetwork searches multiple sites for you and sends you the listings as alerts so you don’t have to do the job hunting yourself.Tailor Your ResumeA freelance administrative assistant can target jobs related to his or her skills and experience. However, the jobs you apply for may seek  someone capable of doing specific types of administrative work. For instance, if you are applying for a position as a worker who sets up meetings and keeps the daily office schedule, you can write up a resume geared toward that position. A job opening for office accounting work can require a different approach.Making a Living as an Administrative FreelancerOne way to d ecide how much you should charge for your services is to look in your area at the salaries offered for that type of job. When deciding to take a job, keep in mind that as a freelancer you will be paying your own self-employment taxes and other expenses that might have been taken care of by your boss in a regular job.Include a profit margin, money to pay taxes and health care and other expenses that you will be paying yourself.  However, you need to keep in mind that if you are working from home and can set aside space for an office, you may have tax deductions from your self-employment that will lower your net income.Searching for jobs using TheJobNetwork platform makes it convenient to do. Put in your credentials and the type of job you are looking for and TheJobNetwork does the work. It searches multiple sites using your criteria and emails alerts to let you know a job has been located. TheJobNetwork ranks the job so you can tell how closely it meets your expectations.

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 24

History - Essay Example According to historical facts, Punic word is derived from Latin word that is mentioned as â€Å"Punicus†. The meaning of Punicus is described as Carthaginian in the literature and dictionaries. Accordingly, Carthaginian is also linked with empire that was liked by majority of public in the social order. In the same way, the reasons of Punic wars are mentioned as complex of people about Carthaginian Empire and roman republic realm. So, Carthaginian is an imperative term that is linked with Punic wars and a researcher should understand this terminology to realize the scenario and causes of Punic wars. A major cause of this series is mentioned as trouble between two empires. In the meanwhile, Rome and Carthage were treated with each other in many financing and economical programs. These both empires were also related against territory of Pyrrhus. In the same way, Carthage rulers were also in the position to take the control of naval power in the western Mediterranean. This scenario was not acceptable for Roman Empire. In the same way, Carthage were struggling to take the control of all areas which was mentioned along various cities like Island, Sardinia, Corsica and limited spots of south Spain. This battle was also linked with the control of some Sicily cities that were beneficial for any empire to gain its development targets. After this condition, Roman rulers were also interested to take control of Sicily cities and this complex was the major reason of first Punic War. Accordingly, Roman rulers tried to take control of those cities and they were trying to increase their milita ry strength for achievement of their specific targets in the Punic war. The same scenario was also related with Carthage rulers as they were interested to defeat Roman Empire by taking effective steps and they took. For instance, Carthaginians sent a huge force along with elephants and other relevant military material for certainty success and they achieved their goals. Through this

This is NOT a paper- it is answering 5 questions-ea 1 pg Essay

This is NOT a paper- it is answering 5 questions-ea 1 pg - Essay Example She was also concentrating on the costumes of the dance and dancers. The Times Magazine has named her as â€Å"Dancer of the Country†. She contributed 70 years of her life for the Dance company. Her one more experimentation was dancing and revealing Human movements. Where as Rainer went one step further by becoming a filmmaker. He too looks similar with that of Martha Graham in revealing social events but differed from her from his revelation of the political side of the society also. His work is associated with skepticism. He tried out finding the difference between irony and cynicism which is also a missing concept in the works of Martha Graham. Though both of them had the similar option of revealing what place art has found in the daily activities of the society? But Rainer seems to have gone a little more by finding how he could reveal the concept of changes that take place in a society, where as Graham restricted her works only with human movements. While analyzing the services rendered by both to the world of choreography, Graham seems to have crossed the perfect contributor. Pina Bausch is a choreographer of modern dance. She pioneered the Tanztheatre style of Dance , a leading and influential dance works which came out from the German Expressionist Dance . She was sent to ballet dance in her childhood. Her dance performances includes a lot of German style of dancing and ballet with the concept of male and female interaction . This theme is found in almost all her works. She has given way for a neo-expressionist style, dramatic and surrealist settings in her work of dance. This could be seen in her work Carnations[1983]. She has choreographed on stages with dirt or carnations of water covered over it . Men and women are found flirting tenderly then moving and flying each other violently towards inside. These are the qualities found in her works. Lin-Huai-Min, is the founder of a well known and famous Chinese Modern Dance Group called